Handbook radiation technology

This may be torn - a hang nail, that sometimes becomes infected, causing pus to form under the eponychium around the base of the nail. Alveolar saccular duct secreting part S. A hair consists of a hair root, a shaft, and a hair sheath or hair follicle.

A hair follicle is a small canal opening upon the skin surface and extending down into the dermis or even the subcutaneous tissue. Each hair follicle is lined by epithelium, continuous with the epithelium of the skin. It is through this canal that a hair reaches the skin surface. The root of a hair is that part below the skin level lying in a hair follicle.

The bulb is the inner enlarged end of each hair root. A germinal layer of epithelium within the bulb forms new cells that push the more mature cells towards the skin surface and shaft. A papilla, a nipple-like process of dermis, fits into a minute depression at the inner end of each bulb. Growth of a hair is accomplished by division of the germinal cells in the bulb.

If cut off, pulled out, or destroyed, hair will regenerate as long as the germinal cells within the bulb remain intact. Each gland consists of a secreting part, an alveolus, that leads into a central canal or duct. This duct leads into a follicle. The secreting cells become filled with an oily substance sebum, that is discharged into the duct and follicle.

Entering a hair follicle, the secretion lubricates the hair and reaches the skin surface to lubricate the skin. The skin contains receptors of sensory nerves that pick up, and transmit to the brain, sensations of the external enviroment such as cold, heat, pain, touch and pressure.

Other receptors transmit sensations of sight, hearing and smell. These must be distinguished from lymph glands or nodes that form part of the lymphatic system, and do not manufacture secretions. The name lymph nodes might be substituted for the latter to avoid confusion. Glands are organized units of epithelial cells that extract raw materials from capillaries and intercellular spaces and manufacture new substances or secretions.

There are many types of glands, each producing a specific secretion. Glands are classified as endocrine or exocrine glands. The duct opens upon the skin surface and has a. These cells a. The secreting part. The long duct passes through the dermis and epidermis to reach the skin surface.

The entire body ha. It has been estimated that there are from 2, to 3, glands per square inch on the palms. Under normal conditions cc of fluid may be lost by sweating in 24 hours. Sweat that accumulates on the skin surface requires body heat to evaporate it. This process causes a lowering of body temperature. Sweat glands have autonomic nerve fibers with a sweating center that controls the activity a. Sweating is a means by which the body can get rid of excessive body heat, or excessive body fluid may be excreted.

They discharge their secretions directly into blood or lymph capillaries for distribution by the blood to all body tissues. Their secretions are called hormones. These glands will be described in detail in Chapter 20 under Endocrine Glands. The duct is a canal through which the secretion passes into a ca. The duct is formed by a. The blind inner end of each tube consists of modified cells encircling this part of the tube.

These are secreting cells and their product is discharged into the central canal or duct. The arrangement of the secreting cells varies with each type of gland. Sweat and sebaceous glands are examples of exocrine glands which have been studied.

Other examples are the salivary glands, the tear glands, the glands of the digestive tract, mammary gland, etc. Simple tubular gland - a single tube of cuboid cells, the inner end of which forms a. Branched tubular gland - a single duct with branches, with a secreting part a.

Simple sa. Branched saccular or alveolar gland - a single collecting duct with branches opening into it, each branch ending in a saclike secreting end. Combined tubuloalveolar gland - with tubular and sacular parts. It is loosely constructed with widely-spaced cells and white and elastic fibers. Frequently there is a layer of fat cells that ma. This fa. It ma. Many blood vessels and nerve fibers pass through subcutaneous tissue to reach the dermis. The matrix intracellular substance is semiliquid.

Mucus is secreted by goblet cells. Skin forms a. The skin excretes water and some waste products. The skin helps to regulate body temperature by the evaporation of sweat and by dilation of capillary blood vessels of the skin radiating heat. Parts of organs: head, neck, body, tail, lobe, lobule, segment, extremity. Openings: aperture, foramen, hiatus, orifice, os, ostium, lumen, porus. Depressions: fissure, fossa, hilum, sulcus, sinus. Others: incisura notch , meatus, ramus, septum.

Protection: bones protect many organs and other structures from injury. The skull protects the brain, ear and eye. The bones and cartilages of the thorax protect the heart and lungs. The pelvis protects the pelvic organs. Support and framework: like the steel or wooden framework of a building, bones give support and shape to the body, and afford attachments for muscles and ligaments.

Levers: bones, together with adjacent joints form levers which permit movement in restricted and definite directions. Long bones: humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula Miniature long bones: metacarpal, metatarsal bones and phalanges of limbs 2. Short bones: carpal and tarsal bones 3, Flat bones: bones of vault of skull, scapula, ribs, sternum, patella 4. Irregular bones: vertebrae, bones at base of skull 5. Sesamoid bones 33 F. The periosteum is a membrane that covers all bones with the exception of the articular joint surfaces which are covered instead by articular cartilages.

The outer layer of periosteum is dense fibrous tissue while the inner layer, next to the bone, has osteoblasts or bone forming cells. Compact bone or cortical bone is dense closely knit bone resembling ivory, made up of compact Haversian systems. It is located under the periosteum. It forms a thick layer in the bodies shafts of long bones.

At the ends of long bones it forms a thin layer under the articular cartilages. In short and irregular bones it forms a thin outer layer under the periosteum, as well as on the articular surfaces.

Spongy or cancellous bone is porous loosely-knit bone similar in appearance to a sponge, or honeycomb, or latticework. Meshworks of slender processes and spicules of bone separate small cavities. It forms a thin layer beneath the compact bone in the bodies of long bones. At the ends of long bones and in the bodies and processes of other bones it forms all but the thin outer compact layer.

The medullary cavity or marrow cavity is a central cavity extending longitudinally in the shafts of long bones. It contains bone marrow. The endosteum is a membrane that lines the medullary cavities of long bones. Bone marrow medulla is the tissue occupying the medullary cavities of long bones and the spaces in spongy bone. There are two types of bone marrow: nl!! It forms red blood cells and some types of white blood cells.

A marrow puncture is often done to obtain a sample of marrow. A hollow needle is pushed through the compact bone into spongy bone to get marrow tissue. As the. It contains considerable fat. The nutrient foramen is a small opening in the periosteum and opens into a nutrient canal that passes obliquely through a bone to a medullary cavity or the center of a solid bone.

In long bones it is located near the center of the shaft. It carries a nerve and an artery into the bone, and provides a passage for veins and lymphatics. Bones receive their blood supply by arteries entering through the nutrient canals as well as by small vessels that penetrate the periosteum. Long bones: Miniature long: proximal or upper extremity end body or shaft distal or lower extremity end base or proximal extremity body head or distal extremity 2.

Short bones: body, sometimes processes 3. Flat bones: body, other parts 9. The flat bones of the skull have a construction peculiar to them. Thin layers of compact bone lie adjacent to the periosteum covering the external and internal surfaces of the flat bone.

These form the outer and inner tables NA plates. A layer of spongy bone called the diploe lies between the two compact layers. Some of the bones of the skull have the outer and inner tables separated by an air-containing space and are referred to as pneumatic bones, with the paranasal sinuses occupying the spaces.

Irregular bones: bones, processes 34 S. In intracartilaginous ossification the cartilage in the shafts of long bones and in the bodies of some other bones is replaced by bone while the fetus is still within the uterus. This is accomplished from a primary center of ossification. A Primary center of ossification is a group of bone cells that make their appearance in the center of the bodies of long and other bones.

These cells divide repeatedly and replace the cartilage of the bodies of these bones. Osteoblasts are cells that form bone.

The diaphysis is that part of a bone formed from a primary center of ossification and includes the body or shaft. The bodies of long bones and of many other bones become ossified in early intrauterine life, and radiographs of the pregnant female will demonstrate them from about the twelfth week of pregnancy. The ends extremities of most long bones and the prominences and processes of bones remain as cartilage until after birth.

Ossification of these is achieved by secondary centers of ossification. These bone cells divide repeatedly and replace the cartilage. They first form islands of bone within the cartilage then entirely replace it. In most bones these centers appear after birth, although about the knees they appear before birth. In girls they appear at a slightly earlier age than in boys.

The age of the appearance of any one secondary center is fairly constant for each sex, but varies from bone to bone. In some bones secondary centers appear in the first year of life. Others appear at specific times during the first or second decades of life.

The other bones of the body are preformed as cartilage that is moulded into the shape of the bone to be. These membranes and cartilages are gradually replaced by bone tissue as development proceeds. In some diseases such as cretinism and pituitary dwarfism the procedure may be delayed or accelerated.

In growing bones the cartilage cells next to the diaphysis and epiphysis are being replaced by bone cells with new cartilage being formed between to be replaced by bone. Bones grow in diameter by division of osteoblastic cells from the inner layer of periosteum. The repair of fractured or destroyed bone takes place by division of osteoblasts from periosteum. The new cells gradually fill in the gap. Osteoblasts are bone forming cells.

Eventually the entire bone end or prominence or process becomes ossified. This ossification is completed at a definite age for each bone end or process. In some bones more than one secondary center appears in the bone end. These form as bone islands within the cartilage. The epiphysis of a bone is that part formed from one or more secondary centers of ossification.

A long bone will have an epiphysis at each end as well as for each prominence or process. A miniature long bone will have an epiphysis at one end only as a rule. Some bones will have an epiphysis for each of its processes.

Abduction - movement away from the median line of the body. To abduct the upper limb would mean to move it away from the median line or plane. Abduct; abductor. Adduction - movement towards or across the median line of the body. To adduct the arm would mean to bring it towards or across the median line of the body. Adduct; adductor 3. The epiphyseal cartilage disc or plate is a layer of cartilage between a diaphysis and epiphysis of bone, that persists during the growing period.

A bone grows in length by formation of cartilage cells in this plate. The cartilage cells next to the diaphysis or epiphysis become replaced by bone cells. Those in the center will continue to divide. The cartilage appears as a dark line in radiographs of growing bones. When growth is complete the cartilage is replaced by bone and it is impossible in a radiograph to see any evidence of it.

The metaphysis is the end of a diaphysis adjacent to an epiphyseal cartilage. Flexion -the movement of bending. To flex the forearm would mean to bend the elbow. Flex; flexor. Extension - the movement of straightening or of stretching out. To extend the forearm would mean to stretch it out in a straight line with the arm.

Extend; extensor. Note: abduction, adduction, flexion and extension are angular movements - angulation. A center of ossification appears in the membrane of each bone before birth. By division of these bone cells the membrane is replaced by bone except for the suture, the membrane at the junction of bones. Inversion - the movement of turning a part to face towards the median line.

Eversion - the movement of turning a part away from the median line. Rotation - the movement of turning a part in one axis. To rotate the arm would mean to simply turn it in or out without circumduction. Rotate; rotator S. This is possible because the age of appearance of any one epiphysis, the age at which the cartilage is completely replaced, and the age at which the ossified epiphysis becomes fused with the body of the bone are fairly constant.

Tables have been compiled from many normal cases giving this data. For example, the 8. Circumduction - movement in a circular direction about a cone shaped axis. To circumduct the upper limb would mean to swing it in a circular direction, as in swinging a pail of water over the head. Circumduct; circumductor.

Fibrous joints, immovable joints, synarthrosis, or synarthrodial joints; 2. Cartilaginous joints, slightly moveable joints, amphiarthroses, or amphiarthrodial joints; 3. Adduction 1. Fibrous joints have a layer of fibrous tissue between the bone ends forming the joint.

This fastens the bone ends together. As no movement is possible these are also called immovable joints. The bone ends may be irregular like the teeth of a saw, or expanded like the crowns of teeth, or may be bevelled or roughened.

In later life the intervening fibrous tissue often disappears and the bone ends become united, e. Cartilaginous joints have cartilage on the adjacent bone ends with a plate or disc of fibrocartilage uniting the two together. Ligaments pass across the joint from one bone to the other. As limited movement is possible they are called' slightly movable joints, e.

Synovial joints have a joint cavity between the bone ends and are held together by a capsule surrounding the joint. As free movement in certain directions is possible these are called freely-movable joints. Supination - the movement of turning the body or hand so that the front of the body faces upwards, i.

Supinate; supinator; supine. Each surface is smooth and consists of a thin layer of compact bone covering the spongy cancellous bone beneath. Pronation - the movement of turning the body to face downwards, to lie face down, or turning the hand so that the palm is facing downwards. Pronate; pronator; prone 2 The articular cartilages cover the bone ends and adjacent bone margins.

Each cartilage consists of a layer of hyaline cartilage that takes the place of periosteum. The cartilages vary in thickness from joint to joint. The cartilages are responsible for the dark space that Gliding - the sliding of one bone upon another at a joint, e.

Since cartilage is translucent it does not obstruct x-rays. Some joints have an extra disc of cartilage separating the articular cartilages from each other, e. It forms a sleeve about the joint and is attached to the circumference of each bone beyond the limit to the articular cartilage. It is a closed sac composed of two layers: a An inner synovial membrane that forms the lining for the joint cavity. It does not cover the articular cartilages.

It secretes a fluid that lubricates the joint. It gives support. A suture of the skull 5 Ligaments composed of fibrous tissue pass from one bone across the joint to the other bone, inside or outside the capsule. These strengthen the joint. It contains a lubricating fluid that helps decrease friction as the parts move over each other. Some bursae lie close to a joint and some open into the joint cavity but many are entirely separate. Elastic cartilage forms the epiglottis, cartilages of the external ear and the auditory tube.

They have the structure of synovial joints, e. Hinge joints are synovial joints that have a trochlea pulley-shaped surface fitting a concave surface to allow an angular motion similar to a hinge, e. Saddle joints are those in which the adjacent bone ends are shaped like a western saddle, convex in one direction and concave in the other.

Pivot joints are those in which a rounded bone end is encircled by a ring of cartilage or bone so that there is rotation or turning on one axis, e. Ball and socket joints have a globelike end or head fitting into a cup-shaped cavity. This allows flexion, extension, abduction, adduction and circumduction, e.

A secondary center of ossification may not unite with the body of a bone but may remain as a separate entity throughout life. Some of them may not unite with the body of the bone, and may be mistaken for a fracture. A secondary center may not unite with the body of the bone to which it belongs but to an adjacent bone.

This may occur in vertebrae. Bones therefore absorb x-rays so that their images are white or grey. Since cartilage absorbs very little radiation, when the same exposure factors are used, their images will be dark and often not visible as separate shadows. Radiographs of growing bones will show images of the bodies or shafts since they are ossified. The secondary centers of ossification in the epiphyses and processes will show as small or larger bone islands close to the bone ends or shafts, and will be surrounded by a clear zone.

Actually, the growing bone has the shape of the adult bone with its bone ends and processes, but only those parts that are ossified are visible on film. The clear spaces are not gaps but are occupied by cartilage. Similarly, the gap between bone ends at a joint of a child or adult is due to the articular cartilages between the bone ends. The diagnosis of pregnancy in a questionable case may be confirmed by radiography of the abdomen after about the twelfth week of pregnancy, because the fetal bones will have ossified sufficiently to be outlined in the radiographs.

The list of names at the beginning of each chapter dealing with bones and joints, along with the diagrams, and access to a mounted skeleton, should enable junior students to become acquainted with this basic information. For simplicity in presenting the material the skeletal system has been divided into: 1. The upper limb, superior limb or member 2. The lower limb, inferior limb or member 3.

The vertebral column 4. The thorax 5. The skull The term "Member" is used to replace "extremity" with reference to a limb as in the Nomina Anatomica.

Older personnel will probably continue to use the terms upper and lower extremities. The axial skeleton includes the bones of: the skull the vertebral column the ribs and sternum the hyoid bone The appendicular skeleton includes the bones of: the upper limb with the shoulder girdle the lower limb with the pelvic girdle 3.

Digits; five digits, fourteen phalanges, s. Scapula - shoulder blade; pl. Clavicle - collar bone; pl. Humerus - arm bone; pl. Radius - lateral bone of forearm; pl. Ulna - medial bone of forearm; pl. Elbow joint two , humerus, radius, ulna 1 humeroradial, 2 humeroulnar 5.

Intercarpal joints, between adjacent carpals 9. Intermetacarpal, between adjacent metacarpals Interphalangeal, between adjacent phalanges 1 proximal, 2 distal HAND: wrist, palm, digits; 1.

Wrist or carpus; 8 bones, 2 rows of four: Proximal row from thumb side: 1 Scaphoid bone navicular bone of wrist or os scaphoideum 2 Lunate bone semilunar bone or os lunatum 3 Triquetral bone tringular bone or os triquetrum 4 Pisiform bone, or os pisiforme Distal row from thumb side: 1 Trapezium greater multangular bone or os trapezium 2 Trapezoid bone lesser multangular bone or os trapezoideum 3 Capitate bone os magnum or os capitatum 4 Hemate bone or os hamatum 2.

Radius S. Body; Borders: Medial or vertebral, lateral or axillary, superior Angles: superior or medial. Head: glenoid cavity 43 3. Neck: 4. Body 3. Proximal extremity head anatomical neck greater tubercle lesser tubercle intertubercular groove sugical neck 2.

Body - shaft deltoid tubercle 3. Proximal extremity head neck radial tuberosity 2. Body or shaft 3. There are two scapulae, a right and a left. The scapula or shoulder blade is a flat triangular bone that lies against the upper posterolateral chest wall. The scapula has no direct connection with the bones of the thorax, but forms a joint with the lateral end of the clavicle.

The clavicle in turn unites with the sternum, forming a prop or brace for the scapula. The scapula has a body, head, neck and two processes. ULNA: a long bone F. Proximal extremity olecranon coracoid process trochlear notch OT semilunar radial notch 2. Distal extremity head styloid process 1 The body of the scapula is flat and triangular and has three borders and three angles.

The medial border, formerly named the vertebral, is that margin closest to the median line of the body, and to the thoracic vertebrae. The lateral border, or axillary border, is that margin farthest away from the median line of the body and adjacent to the posterior border of the armpit or axilla. The superior border is its upper margin, It is short, and close to its lateral end is a notch, the suprascapular notch. The medial angle of the scapula is at its upper medial part where the superior and medial borders meet.

The inferior angle is the lower rounded end of the scapula where the medial and lateral borders meet. The lateral angle is at the junction of the superior and lateral borders.

It is thick and blunt and forms the head of the scapula. The spine of the scapula is a narrow ridge of bone that projects posteriorly from the dorsal surface of the body above its midpoint. It passes transversely from the medial to the lateral border. It extends posteriorly as a sort of shelf, dividing the posterior surface of the scapula into a supraspinatus fossa above, and an infraspinatus fossa below the spine.

The spine can be palpated through the skin on the upper posterior chest. The acromion is the flat rounded lateral end of the spine. It extends out over the shoulder joint, and can be felt through the skin at the tip of the shoulder. Wrist or carpus 2. Metacarpus 3. Proximal row: 1 scaphoid bone - navicular 2 lunate bone - semilunar 3 triquetral bone - triangular 4 pisiform bone 2. It does not have the usual rounded form seen at the heads of most bones.

The glenoid cavity is an oval depression on the lateral surface of the head of the scapula. Its rim is slightly elevated around the concave part. It articulates with the head of the humerus to form the shoulder joint. Neck Medial Border 4 The coracoid process is a beaklike projection originating from the anterior border of the neck of the scapula. It lies below the outer part of the clavicle and can sometimes be felt in this location.

There are two clavicles, a right and a left. The clavicle is a long flat bone somewhat resembling an old fashioned key, hence the name clavicula, a key.

It has a double curve, and lies almost horizontally in front of the upper thorax. It extends from the shoulder to the sternum.

It has an acromial extremity end , a body, and a sternal extremity end. Its acromial end articulates with the acromion of the scapula. Its sternal end articulates with the sternum. The conoid tubercle is a small rough prominence on the posterior margin of the inferior surface of the clavicle towards its acromial end.

The conoid ligament passes from this tubercle to the coracoid process of the scapula. They contain lymph nodes and may be important to the therapy technician.

The clavicle is visible through the skin and may be palpated even in stout subjects. The humerus is a long cylindrical bone that reaches from the shoulder to the elbow. It has a proximal extremity end , a body, and a distal extremity end.

Coracoid Process 1 The proximal extremity has a head, a neck, and greater and lesser tubercles, with an intertubercular groove bicipital groove. The head L. It articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the shoulder joint. The anatomical neck is the slightly constricted obliquely directed part of the humerus between the head and remainder of the bone. It has small depressions on its upper end that provide insertions for the spinatus muscles.

The lesser tubercle L. The intertubercular groove bicipital groove is a furrow that extends longitudinally on the anterior surface of the upper humerus between the greater and lesser tubercles. It forms a groove for the biceps tendon. The surgical neck is the constricted part of the humerus below the tubercles. It has been named the surgical neck as fractures may occur here.

There are two radii, a right and a left. The radius has the ulna on its medial side. The head of the radius is its upper expanded disclike end, with a slightly concave upper articular surface.

The head articulates with the capitulum of the humerus. The neck is the constricted part distal to the head, connecting the head to the body. The radial tuberosity is a rough prominence on the anteromedial surface of the radius below its neck. The biceps tendon inserts into it. It has a deltoid tubercle, a rough prominence on the anterolateral surface of the humerus close to its midpoint.

The deltoid muscle inserts here. The area is sometimes not readily visible. The styloid poocess is a large bony prominence on the lateral border and distal end of the radius.

It extends down below the level of the wrist joint. The carpal articular surface is a large smooth area on the distal end of the radius that articulates with the carpal bones to form the wrist joint. The ulnar notch is a small depression on the medial margin of the distal end of the radius above its articular surface.

The head of the ulna articulates with the radius here. It has a capitulum, trochlea, medial and lateral epicondyles, three fossae coronoid, radial, and olecranon and an ulnar groove. The condyle is the distal extremity of the humerus. The capitulum little head is a small rounded prominence forming the lateral part of the lower articular end of the humerus.

It forms a joint with the upper surface of the head of the radius. It has been named capitulum little head to distinguish it from the head at the upper end of the same bone.

The trochlea pulley forms the medial part of the distal articular suface of the humerus. It is shaped like a pulley or spool. It forms a joint with the trochlear semilunar notch of the ulna, and forms more than the medial half of the joint surface. The coronoid fossa is a depression on the front of the lower humerus immediately above the trochlea. The coronoid process of the ulna fits into it when the forearm is flexed bent.

The radial fossa is a small depression on the front of the lower humerus above the capitulum. The head of the radius fits into it with flexion of the forearm.

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ETDE Web. Handbook of radiation effects. Abstract This handbook is intended to serve as a tool for designers of equipment and scientific instruments in cases where they are required to ensure the survival of the equipment in radiation environments.

Holmes-Siedle, A, and Adams, L. Handbook of radiation effects. United States: N. Copy to clipboard. United States. The aim of this handbook is to assist the engineer or student in that thought; to make it possible to write intelligent specifications; to offer some understanding of the complex variety of effects which occur when high-technology components encounter high-energy radiation; and to go thoroughly into the balance of choices of how to alleviate the effects and hence achieve the design aims of the project.

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