Biological indicators of soil health download

The National Soil Health Institute reports 19 soil health parameters, including 5 soil physical ones: water-stable aggregation, penetration resistance, bulk density, AWC and infiltration rate.

Techniques to determine aggregate stability and penetrometer resistance were introduced many years ago e. Aggregate stability is a relatively static feature as compared with dynamic soil temperature and moisture content, with drawbacks in terms of 1 lack of uniform applied methodology e.

Measured penetrometer resistances are known to be quite variable because of different modes of handling in practice and seasonal variation. Finally, the AWC is a static characteristic based on fixed values as expressed by laboratory measurements of the pressure head for field capacity and wilting point that do not correspond with field conditions e.

These drawbacks must be considered when suggesting the introduction for general use as physical soil health indicators. More recent developments in soil physics may offer alternative approaches, to be explored in this paper, that are more in line with the dynamic behavior of soils.

Table 1 Main soil features of selected soil series. Discussions in the early s have resulted in a distinction between inherent and dynamic soil quality.

The former would be based on relatively stable soil properties as expressed in soil types that reflect the long-term effect of the soil-forming factors corresponding with the basic and justified assumption of soil classification that soil management should not change a given classification. Nevertheless, soil functioning of a given soil type can vary significantly as a result of the effects of past and current soil management, even though the name of the soil type does not change this can be the soil series as defined in USDA Soil Taxonomy, Soil Survey Staff, , as expressed in Table 1 but the lowest level in other soil classification systems would also apply.

In any case, the classification should be unambiguous. Dynamic soil quality would reflect possible changes as a result of soil use and management over a human timescale, which can have a semipermanent character when considering, for example, subsoil plow pans e. This was also recognized by Droogers and Bouma and Rossiter and Bouma when defining different soil phenoforms reflecting effects of land use for a given genoform as distinguished in soil classification.

Distinction of different soil phenoforms was next translated into a range of characteristically different soil qualities by using simulation techniques Bouma and Droogers, Humans differ and so do soils; some soils are genetically more healthy than others and a given soil can have different degrees of health at any given time, which depends not only on soil properties but also on past and current management and weather conditions. Moebius-Clune et al. This represents a clear limitation and could in time lead to a wide variety of local systems with different parameters that would inhibit effective communication to the outside world.

This paper will therefore explore possibilities for a science-based systems approach with general applicability. To apply the soil health concept to a wider range of soils in other parts of the world, the attractive analogy with human health not only implies that health has to be associated with particular soil individuals, but also with climate zones. In addition, current questions about soil behavior often deal with possible effects of climate change. In this paper, the proposed systems analysis can — in contrast to the procedures presented so far — also deal with this issue.

Using soils as a basis for the analysis is only realistic when soil types can be unambiguously defined, as was demonstrated by Bonfante and Bouma for five soil series in the Italian Destra Sele area that will also be the focus of this study. The recent report of the National Academy of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine , emphasizes the need for the type of systems approaches as followed in this study. The basic premise of the soil health concept, as advocated by Moebius-Clune et al.

Soil characterization programs since the early part of the last century have been exclusively focused on soil chemistry and soil chemical fertility and this has resulted in not only effective recommendations for the application of chemical fertilizers but also in successful pedological soil characterization research. But soils are living bodies in a landscape context and not only chemical but also physical and biological processes govern soil functions. The soil health concept considers therefore not only soil chemical characteristics, which largely correspond with the ones already present in existing soil fertility protocols, but also with physical and biological characteristics that are determined with well-defined methods, with particular emphasis on soil biological parameters Moebius-Clune et al.

However, the proposed soil physical methods by Moebius-Clune et al. The proposed procedures do not allow this. Explorative simulation studies can be used to express possible effects of climate change as, obviously, measurements in the future are not feasible. Also, only simulation models can provide a quantitative, interdisciplinary integration of soil—water—atmosphere—plant SWAP processes that are key to both the soil quality and soil health definitions, as mentioned above.

In summary, the objectives of this paper are to i explore alternative procedures to characterize soil physical quality and health by applying a systems analysis by modeling the soil—water—atmosphere—plant system, an analysis that is valid anywhere on earth; ii apply the procedure to develop quantitative expressions for the effects of different forms of soil degradation; and iii explore effects of climate change for different soils also considering different forms of soil degradation.

Soil functions therefore have a central role in the quality and health debate. EC defined the following soil functions: 1 biomass production, including agriculture and forestry; 2 storing, filtering and transforming nutrients, substances and water; 3 biodiversity pool, such as habitats, species and genes; 4 physical and cultural environment for humans and human activities; 5 source of raw material; 6 acting as carbon pool; and 7 archive of geological and archaeological heritage.

Functions 4, 5 and 7 are not covered in this contribution since, if considered relevant, specific measures have to be taken to set soils apart by legislative measures.

The other functions are directly and indirectly related to Function 1, biomass production. Of course, soil processes not only offer contributions to biomass production, but also to filtering, biodiversity preservation and carbon storage. Inter- and transdisciplinary approaches are needed to obtain a complete characterization, requiring interaction with other disciplines, such as agronomy, hydrology, ecology and climatology and, last but not least, with stakeholders and policymakers.

Soil functions thus contribute to ecosystem services and, ultimately, to all 17 UN Sustainable Development Goals e. However, in the context of this paper, attention will be focused on Function 1, biomass production. Soil physical aspects play a crucial role when considering the role of soil in biomass production, as expressed by Function 1, which is governed by the dynamics of the soil—water—atmosphere—plant system in three ways:.

Roots provide the link between the soil and plant. Rooting patterns as a function of time are key factors for crop uptake of water and nutrients. Deep rooting patterns imply less susceptibility to moisture stress.

Soil structure, the associated bulk densities and the soil water content determine whether or not roots can penetrate the soil. When water contents are too high, either because of the presence of a water table or of a dense, slowly permeable soil horizon impeding vertical flow, roots will not grow because of lack of oxygen. For example, compact plow pans, resulting from the application of pressure on wet soil by agricultural machinery, can strongly reduce rooting depth.

When precipitation rates are higher than the infiltrative capacity of soils, water will flow laterally away over the soil surface, possibly leading to erosion and reducing the amount of water available for plant growth. The climate and varying weather conditions among the years govern biomass production.

Rainfall varies in terms of quantities, intensities and patterns. Radiation and temperature regimes vary as well. In this context, definitions of location-specific potential yield Yp , water-limited yield Yw and actual yield Ya are important, as will be discussed later. Soil Function 2 first requires soil infiltration of water followed by good contact between percolating water and the soil matrix, where clay minerals and organic matter can adsorb cations and organic compounds, involving chemical processes that will be considered when defining soil chemical quality.

However, not only the adsorptive character of the soil is important but also the flow rate of applied water that can be affected by climatic conditions or by management when irrigating. Rapid flow rates generally result in poor filtration as was demonstrated for viruses and fecal bacteria in sands and silt loam soils Bouma, The organic matter content of soils is highly affected by soil temperature and moisture regimes and soil chemical conditions.

Optimal conditions for root growth in terms of water, air and temperature regimes will also be favorable for soil biological organisms, linking soil functions 1, 3 and 6. When defining soil physical aspects of soil quality and soil health, focused on soil Function 1, parameters that integrate various aspects will have to be defined, such as 1 weather data; 2 the infiltrative capacity of the soil surface, considering rainfall intensities and quantities; 3 rootability as a function of soil structure, defining thresholds beyond which rooting is not possible; and 4 hydraulic and root extraction parameters that allow a dynamic characterization of the soil—water—atmosphere—plant system.

This system can only be realized by process modeling, which requires the five parameters listed above, and is therefore an ideal vehicle to realize interdisciplinary cooperation. Simulation models of the soil—water—atmosphere—plant system are ideal to integrate these various aspects. When analyzing soil quality and soil health, emphasis must be on the dynamics of vital, living ecosystems requiring a dynamic approach that is difficult to characterize with static soil characteristics such as bulk density, organic matter content and texture except when these characteristics are used as input data into dynamic simulation models of the soil—water—plant—climate system.

Restricting attention to soil physical characteristics, hydraulic conductivity K and moisture retention properties O h of soils are applied in such dynamic models. Measurement procedures are complex and can only be made by specialists, making them unsuitable for general application in the context of soil quality and health. The latter soil characteristics are available in existing soil databases and are required information for the dynamic models predicting biomass production.

So-called water-limited yields Yw can be calculated, assuming optimal soil fertility and lack of pests and diseases e. Yw reflects climate conditions at any given location in the world as it is derived from potential production Yp that reflects radiation, temperature and basic plant properties, assuming that water and nutrients are available and pests and diseases do not occur. Yw reflects local availability of water. Yw is usually, but not always, lower than Yp. Nematode numbers fluctuate in response to the population dynamics of the organisms they consume.

They are also influenced by the soil physical and chemical environment. Nematodes are readily extracted from soil, and their food sources can be determined by looking at their mouthparts under a microscope:. Ecological indices are calculated from the species and numbers of nematodes present in a soil sample. A healthy soil is likely to have a nematode community with a low enrichment index and a high structural index. Manual nematode community analysis is not something that is currently done on a routine basis.

The methods used to extract nematodes from soil are laborious, and expertise are required for identification. DNA-based tests i. PCR-based methods are mainly applied to single organisms and are used to measure populations of plant-parasitic nematodes. Recent advances in rapid DNA sequencing metabarcoding could provide a practical and affordable way for laboratories to determine the composition of the soil nematode community. Soil management that supports a healthy and diverse soil biological community will give more effective and resilient regulation of soil function within cropping systems.

Therefore, biological indicators of soil health, such as nematodes, need to be considered together with indicators of the physical and chemical properties of soils and interpreted carefully for each soil type and cropping system. Discover the soil food web. Learn about the different ecological groups of earthworms. Search entire site. Supply and demand. Cost of production and performance. Imports and exports. Market analysis. Beef markets. UK cattle facts and figures. Beef and lamb at a glance.

Individual finished auction markets. Compare finished auction markets. Daily finished auction markets by region. Weekly finished auction markets by region. Weekly store markets by region. GB deadweight cattle prices by region. EU deadweight cattle and calf prices.

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UK cattle marketing chain. England abattoir numbers. GB auction markets. GB cattle carcase classification. UK slaughterings and production. GB estimated slaughterings. EU slaughterings. GB household beef purchases. Red meat country of origin audit. Moore, and L. A Whole-Systems Approach to Farming. From onward, the Soil Indicator of forest health was fully implemented as part of the FIA for-est health indicators program with little change to its core measurements and protocols.

Soil color can tell us the amount and state of organic matter and iron oxide, age, and other physical processes. Although farmers have intuitively understood the importance of soil health for generations, recent efforts have focused on how to better measure and quantify soil health.

Editor-in-Chief: Wayne Bryden. Soil … Another aspect of importance to the soil chemical health is the absence of toxic substances in the soil. Soil Health Test Idowu et al. However, the concepts, framework and indicators for soil health Soil salinization is a serious problem itself, but it rarely comes alone.

Tillage can degrade soil health by mechanically reducing soil aggregates and oxidation of soil organic matter upon decomposition by soil microbes.

Soil should be full of earthworms, beetles, spiders, ants, and other soil life in the top six inches. Soil Quality - improving how your soil works is a web site devoted to soil quality concepts, indicators, assessment, management, and practices. Soil texture is a purely physical aspect of soil and therefore should not be considered a direct indicator of soil health. Their potential to serve as a soil health indicator is explored with reference to their role in soil aggregation and land or ecological restoration.

Climatic conditions, namely temperature and precipitation, are key drivers of SOC storage globally as well as at broad sub- regional scales, affecting both C input into the soil and SOC decomposition.

Those indicators are: organic matter recycling and carbon sequestration, Topics addressed included such items as specific research supporting an indicator or indicators, recommended analytical methods, and identification of concerns and issues. Soil health cannot be measured directly, so we evaluate indicators. The outcomes of facilitated farmer meetings include a user-friendly, do-it-yourself tool to assess soil health as well as mutually beneficial dialog among farmers and technical specialists.

They are vital for protecting ecosystems, maintaining water quality, producing crops, and mitigating climate change..

Publishing Model: Hybrid. Open Access options available. Soil organic matter as a soil health indicator: Sampling, testing, and interpretation D. Among the various biological indicators that have been proposed to monitor soil health, soil enzyme activities have great potential to provide a unique integrative biological assessment of soils and the possibility of assessing the health of the soil biota.

Although certain soil indicators may always be relevant when trying to assess soil health, including soil texture, bulk density, pH, and organic carbon concentrations Stewart et al. Soil microbial community composition, enzyme activities, and soil physiochemical properties are considered as important indicators of soil health.

Soil provides many ecological services essential for agriculture. Soil physics, chemistry and biology are interlinked and all play a role in maintaining productive agricultural and horticultural systems. This volume will thropod interactions Chapter 4 ; diversity of litter appeal to many workers in ecology, agriculture, and microarthropods Chapter 5 ; predator dynamics management settings. Graduate students and re- Chapter 6 ; resource utilization and chemical ecol- searchers in areas such as microbial ecology and soil ogy Chapter 7 ; chemical ecology of litter in relation sciences should get plenty of discussions going in sem- to altitude Chapter 8 ; trophic systems Chapter 9 ; inars and journal club meetings with this work.

Camilo ogy of litter Chapter Louis, MO good starting point for the rest of the book. Forest Insect Litter Communities: Biology and Chem- Nonetheless, there were no references to the impor- ical Ecology tance of spatial gradients and discontinuities produced T.

Ananthakrishnan by human impacts, nor on the role of natural distur- Science Publishers, Inc. The role that litter pp. This group is usually over- ders, places the number of described species at over looked, especially when compared to the canopy and ,, with the bulk of the described species in the understory components of forest ecosystems.

Chapman and Hall, New York. This is very tie the resource biochemistry and diversity with the likely an underestimation of soil fauna diversity, given diversity of soil microarthropods.

Unfortunately, this that many diverse groups in the tropics, such as is not so for the other chapters. Once more, the lack roaches, crickets, beetles, and collembolans, have not of a strong conceptual and theoretical framework, been estimated for the tropical regions.

The chapter coupled with the lack of comparative data across sites on litter arthropod diversity is probably the most dis- makes these chapters very weak, contributing little to appointing.

Over the last decade there has been great our understanding of tropical forest litter communi- efforts and progress in investigating the gargantuan ties. The general contrast did pepper all of the chapters with heavy doses of in diversity between undisturbed forest and tree plan- tations did demonstrate that there are more insect jargon. But that could be overlooked if the author was litter species in the more diverse site, but does little somehow able to pull all the work together and bring more than that.

The conceptual setting for the com- about a strong summary and concluding chapter. Well, parison is almost none existing, with not a single ref- that is not the case here.

Like in most of the other erence to the relationship between taxonomic and chapters, little emphasis was given to the framework, functional diversity, disturbance, nor any other kind of with no effort to tie the points made throughout the ecological theory. I can not, in any Over the last dozen years or so there has been great good conscience, recommend this book. For example, recent modeling graduate student, there are many other, much more studies have indicated that the resilience and persis- productive ways of spending the money.